| 1. Separation principle | Pressure-driven size exclusion | Water and small dissolved substances pass through the membrane, while larger colloids, particles, bacteria, and macromolecules are retained. | Pretreatment, drinking-water clarification, wastewater reuse |
| 2. Nominal pore size | Approximately 0.01–0.1 micrometres | The effective pore range is small enough to remove suspended solids and many microorganisms without the high pressure used by reverse osmosis. | Surface-water and process-water treatment |
| 3. Molecular weight cut-off | Commonly about 10–300 kDa | MWCO indicates the approximate molecular size at which macromolecule retention becomes significant; the exact value depends on the membrane and test conditions. | Protein concentration, bioprocessing, polymer recovery |
| 4. Typical operating pressure | Approximately 0.1–5 bar transmembrane pressure | Ultrafiltration generally operates at lower pressure than nanofiltration and reverse osmosis, reducing energy demand for many applications. | Low-pressure filtration systems and membrane bioreactors |
| 5. Typical membrane materials | PVDF, PES, PS, PAN, ceramic materials | Polymeric membranes are widely used because they are lightweight and economical; ceramic membranes offer strong chemical and thermal resistance. | Municipal, industrial, food, pharmaceutical, and laboratory systems |
| 6. Common module formats | Hollow-fibre, tubular, flat-sheet, and spiral-wound | Module geometry affects packing density, cleaning access, solids handling, and the required system footprint. | Different feed qualities and plant capacities |
| 7. Typical removal performance | High removal of suspended solids, turbidity, colloids, bacteria, and many viruses | Removal depends on membrane integrity, feed characteristics, operating conditions, and the target microorganism or particle. | Disinfection polishing and clarification |
| 8. Salt and small-solute behaviour | Most dissolved salts and many low-molecular-weight compounds pass through | Ultrafiltration is not normally used for desalination; nanofiltration or reverse osmosis is more suitable when dissolved ions must be removed. | Pre-treatment before desalination |
| 9. Main fouling controls | Screening, coagulation, prefiltration, cross-flow, backwashing, and chemical cleaning | Fouling reduces permeate flux and increases operating costs; the appropriate control strategy depends on the feed-water composition. | Long-term continuous operation |
| 10. Key supplier-evaluation criteria | Verified flux, rejection data, chemical compatibility, module life, testing support, and after-sales service | A reliable comparison should use feed-specific test data rather than nominal pore size alone. | Supplier selection and system design |